Write a paper on some of the events and movements (peasant revolts,etc) that contributed to the cultural phenomenon of the witch figure. How does that compare to a book or movie (or story) you know about a witch, modern, ancient, historical or fiction?
What is a witch? Humanities Assignment
Notes
The witch hunt was a state sponsored terror campaign that was central to defeat the European peasantry and its resistance. A perfect storm coalesced to create the cultural phenomenon of the Witch figure. The age of witch-hunting spanned more than four centuries (from the 14th to the 18th century) in its sweep from Germany to England. It was born in feudalism and lasted gaining in virulence well into the age of reason. The witch-craze took different forms at different times and places, but never lost its essential character: that of a ruling class campaign of terror directed against the female peasant population. Witches represented a political, religious and sexual threat to the Protestant and Catholic churches alike, as well as to the state.The extent of the witch-craze is startling: In the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries there were thousands of executions usually live burnings at the stake in Germany, Italy and other countries. In the mid-sixteenth century the terror spread to France, and finally to England. One writer has estimated the number of executions at an average of 600 a year for certain German cities or two a day, leaving out Sundays.: Nine-hundred witches were destroyed in a single year in the Wertzberg area, and 1000 in and around Como. At Toulouse, four-hundred were put to death in a day. In the Bishopric of Trier, in 1585, two villages were left with only one female inhabitant each. Women made up some 85 percent of those executed old women, young women and children. [We are omitting from this discussion any mention of the New England witch trials in the 1600s. These trials occurred on a relatively small scale, very late in the history of witch-hunts, and in an entirely different social context than the earlier European witch-craze.]Their scope alone suggests that the witch hunts represent a deep-seated social phenomenon which goes far beyond the history of medicine. In locale and timing, the most virulent witch hunts were associated with periods of great social upheaval shaking feudalism at its roots mass peasant uprisings and conspiracies, the beginnings of capitalism, and the rise of Protestantism. There is fragmentary
2evidence which feminists ought to follow up suggesting that in some areas witchcraft represented a female-led peasant rebellion. History before the history:Roman emperors had already put into place anti-Jewish and anti-magician edicts but such laws were not practiced again until one thousand years later. What caused the church to take so seriously the threat of ceremonial magic? Why did the church wait 1000 years for this craze to go into effect? For 1000 years the church had just ignored a lot of it but a great storm of change for the peoples of early modern Europe lead to the figure of the witch.By 1401 the catholic church had a credibility problem. The pope wrote a Papal Bull in the late 1400s saying: the greatest threat to the church is the midwife.The church would create the very evil it was purporting to try to eradicate. But some things started to happen by the late 14th century and coalesced with many other events that many scholars will tell in works from the last 50 years, that led to an intense political struggle between the midwife and the church. Powerful and complex intersection of confluences, beliefs passed down over places this created a state sponsored campaign of terror that spread over mostly three centuries before it was in part adopted in other parts of the world. This has led to a complete restructuring of gender norms and tolerances.The women accused as witches would have never called themselves such they would have been known as cunning women, midwives, nurses.1 — Paganism -folklore of fairies-celebration of the wheel of the year (spirit of the green, rebirth of nature)-following older goddess beliefsRonald Hutton argues: The second was the unerring and continuous practices of pagan custom, deeply enshrined in the agriculture world upon which western Europe had been established. For one, pagan custom was well established and the Christian fathers had trouble convincing people of all incomes and status that their God could contribute as much crop and as much healing as the rites that were practiced in the field or in womens medicine, aka magic. Beliefs in the power of the fairies, and its links to ancient worship of goddesses, all undermined the churchs dominance. The planting and the harvest seasons every year were matters of life and death. the actions of ritual, aka ceremonial magic that encouraged the crops to grow and the suns return. The
3solstices and their intermediary fire festivals of Beltane (May first) and Samhain (October 31st) traditions, beliefs and everyday practices that were common-day acceptance.2 –Birth Control/herbal wisdomWomen all over the world have always worked as lay healers. Midwife is considered the first profession. They cultivated herbs and through their senses, developed painkillers and specific remedies to help manage the number of children women would bear.But this care contradicted everything the early church dictated. There became a struggle Carnal, using senses (early science)Herbs to limit childrenPainkillers to ease suffering for rich and poor alikeAt first the thought of witches lurking in the US history of medicine or in the political landscape of reproductive rights might seem fanciful but there is a connection. Historians and Medieval scholars acknowledge that there is evidence of a political struggle that took place between women as lay healers and a burgeoning medical profession in the late middle ages.-practiced in the ancient world, limited 2/3 children on purposeAristotle-Peasants and nobility practiced it-Midwives practiced it. 3 –Medical Profession -university scholars, no women allowed (one town had 50 physicians to 250 lay healers/women)-Elizabeth 1 and wealthy women may have been granted access to schools-You can find testimony by authors like Bacon and Hobbes talking about how they would rather receive care from a midwife rather than a U trained physician4 –Women and Heresy – Cathari means pure (live as Jesus intended)The heretic movements (Cathar and Waldenses) most notable aspect was the high status of women. For about 300 years flourished greatest opposition to church in middle agesA could enjoy mobility, social lifeB- administer sacramentsC baptize, lead worshipD- Agapic communities of brother/sisterhoodE Beguines, laywomen from middle class who formed communitiesF -Denounced private property/wealth accumulationG God does not need to speak through priests
4The figure of the heretic became more and more sexualized and heretics were accused of bestiality, orgies and everything the church could deem deviant. By the beginning of the 15thcentury the heretics were more and more women and less men. Church called an all-out war on women and stole their symbols: adopting feminine dress, magical powers of life, what women once gave is now the power of Christ to give ever-lasting life and sexuality became an object of shame.Reformation/Protestantism craze it only increased.5 — Sexual Politics of Labor***For centuries the poor and the aged were cared for The Charter of the Forest, since 1215, was part of the customary practices of the poor. Begging, sleeping on church benches was okay, and more rare. It was part of a manorial system of care developed since the Magna Carta.*** Women fared better in a subsistence economy (nomadic and wage threat of violence, no rules on the street for rape) used to work side by side with men in field, all work was workFemale serfs were less dependent on male kin, less differentiated from physical, social, psychological and less subservient. Womens work was not devalued work in the house was the same as work in the field. ***Serfdom developed 5th-7th centuries because of breakdown in the slave system on which economy of Rome had settled biggest difference between slave and serf – for exchange for the work they had to do for the lord of the manor, they got a plot of land to feed themselves and maintain a livelihood.Merchant guild booted outUniversities no women allowedNo wages womens work is devaluedProstitution increased Indoor value/outdoor value changedSexuality itself began to be supervised by the church and judgedWomen lost their rights to inherit that 1/3 of husbands property by the 15th century women mass exodus to cities, away from villages and found low paid jobs as maids, spinsters and prostitutes alt families arose. 6 –Nobility/ClassPauperization/Criminalization of the working class1545: 6000 homeless/vagabonds in Venice
5Starvation/famine for two hundred years7 –Primitive Accumulation-Enclosures-Land grab by nobility and church-Food grown not for peasants (but as a commodity). Introduced labor power and changed the social position of women. -Expulsion of the peasantry-Privatization began alongside colonialism: it took different forms: Increased state tax, evicting tenants, sale of land.Was more than that not just exploiting starving workers and building capital. Divisions within the working class social hierarchies between race and gender Federici argues that capitalism is not a moment of historical progress it has created and justified more brutal and insidious forms of enslavement and it services to intensify and conceal exploitation.The pro-accumulists said the land could be made more productive if it was privatized. And grow the food supply to increase wealth and feed the masses. But it didnt increase food supply it made more food available for the market and for export as a commodity. Two centuries of starvation ensued leaving its people exploited and malnourished.The modern world is being invented at this timeThis great transformation is the new economy in Europe. Old women and widows, childless were extremely affected by these developments. Combination of rising prices, silver from SA, the price of grain and everything began to rise. Rising prices and loss of customary rights left them with nothing. Up until then the rural economy had provided for them. Looking at English border enclosures that began to privatize what had been community structures with reciprocal bonds created a hostility. These were all neighbors. This tool place in many parts of Europe but it was really clear in England: Expulsion of the peasantry and commercialization of the land. Many of these women would have been beggars. The accused witches would have been vengeful, interrogators argued, the land they once used themselves would be off limits now and their neighbors would be using the land for animal husbandry. The first accusations of witchcraft in Essex and other places were peoples horses, cows and pigs were bewitched.8 –Printing Press Malleus Maleficarum – Wikipedia
6 (Hammer of Witches)Literacy (gave us Shakespeare)Gave us propaganda, brochures, tools and language for rooting out women as witches.9 –Sexuality fear of sexHatred of womens bodies, fear of their sexuality. It goes back to Eve. And genesis was a way to justify the second-class citizenry.Womens bodies were lustful, vulnerable to the devilEve, Pandora semen is vehicle of souls (remember Athena?)Women were more naturally inclined toward evilAnimals were constantly identified with witcheryDivided men and women their trustWomen were to blame for mens lustWitches were to blame causing erotic excessive passion in men or caused them to be impotentHypersexualization of old women needing sex from the devil because their wombs were cold.Current thinkers like Federici have brought new perspectives on history uniting these storms with other huge events. She calls it a state sponsored campaign of terror against women that lasted three centuries. The interrogation, language, tools and philosophies conjoins with other uses namely colonization and enslavement.
7Background on Magic and Religion in Ancient WorldEarly modern Europe inherited the ideas of the witch from the ancient world.Ancient contextImperial and Republican RomePliny and Seneca both condemn magic, Its a way of giving orders to deities.3rd century Apollonius was acquitted from charges of using magic by saying he was praying to God.EgyptPourous border between humans and gods. 3,000year belief systemHeka means life force. Gods need help form humansSometimes humans are deified in afterlifeTombs show prayers and rituals to deities even threats!Everyone used magicRitual= incense, words, stones, plants, wax figuresEgypt had NO CONCEPT of WITCHCRAFTEvil eye, yes, but magic by foreign invaders was biggest threat1200 BC group tried to kill Ramses II, by using magic found in a book. But they were tried and convicted of treason, not witchcraftHomer 800 BC: Egypt most skill in all herbsNo words for magician, only: scorpion charmer, amulet makerMaking a spirit a servant is admirableMesopotamiaMore afraid and respectful of deities(like Egypt, magic is the official religion)Humans couldnt command spirits Developed heavily influenced astrologyCourt astrologers reported to KingStars ruled deitiesDemons were hostile to humans and evil.All misfortune and sickness was due to demonsMust do ritual to expel, priests helpAship ?Believed in witches and were inherently evilLaws against witchcraft: death if convictedBelieved you could do evil through, eye, moutha dn sperm
8To counter magic, was effective so killing witches wasnt really needed.Women were witches of low statusAll accused were womenYou could bewitch someone by food or drinkBy taking someones bodily wasteBy ritualPublic enemy #1 became the witchMore and more malevolentPersian/Iran 600BCE-600AD ZoroastrianBig divide: angels and demonsHittites 2000BC Politics and witchcraft really integratedWanted magical powers put into hands of government Started interrogations of witchesEndice?1500 King Khattushili 1 banned the queen from keeping priestesses who knew about magic and who practiced exorcismsLot of accusations against women in power1000BC Hebrews fixated on reverence for one godSpiritual and magical powers were vested into the priesthoodGreece mostly classical ageDistinguished between magic and religionmago both name of a magician and foreign priesthood in Persia (the enemy)Some underworld magic was believed (spirits of dead)A priest could exorcize unwanted spirits (like Mesopotamia)No text on it.Thoeris of Lemnos was put to death (a priestess) for impiety: potions and incantationsShe is accused by one source teaching slaves to deceive and overthrow ownersTwo characters: Circe and Medea used magic for their own use. (women were more seen as a threat)Men were often called service magiciansRomeRepublican and Imperial Rome Pliny: Magic is only a wish to give orders to deities1st century ad magician = outsiderMagus=Persian priestVeneficium=poison or magic
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